2.3 Behaviour
The end result of information processing is behaviour in the form of some sort of action. Behaviour is treated at two levels: the cognitive-level taxonomy (skill / rule / knowledge) that classifies the type of cognitive work behind an action, and the interpersonal-level taxonomy (aggressive / submissive / assertive) that classifies how the actor behaves toward others. The first is the SRK taxonomy below; the second is drawn from the A4.1.1 Evidence-Based Training where it appears as a reference for instructor self-management.
2.3.1 Categories of behaviour
Behaviour may be broken down into three categories:
| Category | Underpinning |
|---|---|
| Skill-based behaviour | Motor programmes |
| Rule-based behaviour | Checklist and procedures |
| Knowledge-based behaviour | Decision making |
This is the Rasmussen Skill-Rule-Knowledge (SRK) taxonomy that runs through the human-factors literature and through ICAO's competency framework. Each category has its own characteristic error mode, and the instructor's diagnostic job in the debrief is partly to classify which category the observed performance failure sits in, because the remedial action differs.
Skill-based behaviour
Skill-based behaviour relies on the stored routines or motor programmes described above. The operation or manipulation of aircraft controls can be regarded as skills, which are learned through practice and capable of execution without conscious thought.
Rule-based behaviour
A routine or procedure that has been learned, and that is stored in long-term memory, governs rule-based behaviour. Checklists are a good example. The recall items for an engine fire determine the sequence in which a set of discrete skills are carried out (such as closing the thrust lever, fuel control switch, operating the fire push button). Only safety-critical items are actioned by recall; the remainder are documented in the QRH, checklists, operations manual, and approach charts. Rule-based behaviour is still involved at all stages, as the pilot must know where to look and must be able to initiate the correct drill.
As much as possible of the flight deck procedures are rule-based. The resulting standardisation allows any two pilots to fly together in the knowledge that they will perform in a predetermined and predictable way.
Errors in rule-based behaviour are usually the result of an initial misidentification of the problem, resulting in the wrong procedure being initiated entirely (e.g. shutting down the wrong engine). Errors may also result from a mistaken belief that it is safe to depart from a set procedure (e.g. choosing to ignore a Ground Proximity Warning).
The rule-based error class is the dominant aetiology behind procedural-deviation accidents. The pilot followed a procedure correctly; it just was not the right procedure for the situation. Diagnostic remedy: the trainee needs help with the situation-recognition step that triggers procedure selection, not with the procedure execution.
Knowledge-based behaviour
Knowledge-based behaviour may perhaps be better described as decision making. Decision making is clearly carried out by the central decision maker in the information processing model (see 2.7 Human Information Processing and Memory) and depends upon access to all the information available from the environment and from memory. Knowledge-based behaviour involves evaluating evidence and reaching conclusions, and will in future be the main reason for retraining pilots on the flight deck. The skill and rule-based elements are becoming increasingly automated as modern autopilots and flight management systems are introduced.
The forecast in the source has aged well. As cockpit automation has grown, the pilot's job has shifted from skill-based stick-and-rudder work to knowledge-based monitoring, anomaly detection, and decision making about whether to intervene with the automation. EBT's emphasis on threat-and-error management and on resilience (Generation 4 jet competencies in particular) is the training response to that shift.
The SRK taxonomy in the debrief
Classifying an observed error against the SRK taxonomy is part of the instructor's diagnostic responsibility:
| If the observed error is | The diagnostic question is | The remedial focus is |
|---|---|---|
| Skill-based (action slip on a familiar manoeuvre) | What was happening to monitoring, arousal, or workload at the moment of the slip? | Workload management, monitoring discipline, fatigue / distraction recognition |
| Rule-based (wrong procedure for the situation) | What signals did the pilot read off the situation, and what mental model did they map them onto? | Situational assessment, procedure-selection heuristics, anomaly recognition |
| Knowledge-based (no procedure exists; pilot had to decide) | What evidence did the pilot weigh, and what decision-making frame did they use? | Decision making, TEM frame, communication and crew involvement in decision |
Treating all three error classes with the same remedial (more practice on the manoeuvre) is the most common diagnostic failure in flight training. More practice helps with skill-based competency; it does not help when the underlying problem was that the wrong procedure was chosen, and it actively does not help when the underlying problem was a decision-making frame.
Interpersonal behaviour: the assertive frame
A4.B.4 Behaviour supplies a four-category interpersonal-behaviour taxonomy that the instructor uses both to assess crew behaviour and to manage their own conduct in the simulator. The categories are direct aggression, indirect aggression, submission, and assertion. The taxonomy is not from the SRK section but earns inclusion here because Appendix 4 treats it as a significant module in the instructor-training program and uses the terms repeatedly across the rest of its content.
The four behavioural patterns
| Pattern | Observable behaviours |
|---|---|
| Direct aggression | Loud, forceful, anger, posture, invading space, shouting, abusive, violent, glaring, finger-pointing |
| Indirect aggression | Sarcasm, condescending, belittling, spreading rumour, gossip, hides behind humour, dishonest, confusing, manipulative, sulking |
| Submission | Quiet, avoid eye contact, apologetic, nervous, timid, agrees with everything, does not express opinion, doesn't argue, never says no, doesn't make decisions, doesn't ask questions |
| Assertion | Friendly and relaxed, confident, open and honest, expresses feelings and opinions, has empathy, listens to understand questions, clear and concise, gives criticism and praise, manages and reads body language, comfortable eye contact, asks for what they want, says no, willing to compromise |
Short-term gains, long-term effects
The four patterns persist because each delivers a short-term gain, and the patterns are damaging because each carries a long-term cost. A4.B.4 Behaviour tabulates them:
| Pattern | Short-term gain | Long-term effect |
|---|---|---|
| Direct aggression | Get your way, keep control, get respect, save time, get results, stop protests, get your message across | Lack of respect, avoided, doesn't get information, personal stress, loses credibility, creates fear, no initiative from others, no support, disliked |
| Indirect aggression | Get your way, have fun, gain support of others, self-satisfaction | No trust, no respect, revenge, avoided, no progress, conflict |
| Submission | Quiet life, to be liked, no pressure, avoid conflict, not blamed | Doesn't get anything, treated badly, depressed, ignored |
The pattern is consistent across all three: the short-term win produces the long-term loss. The instructor who shouts at a slow trainee gets the trainee to perform in the moment and earns lasting resentment that hurts every subsequent session. The trainee who submits to a poorly-justified critique avoids the immediate conflict and embeds the bad habit. The instructor who manages their own behaviour into the assertive band, and who coaches trainees toward the same band, breaks the pattern.
The bill of rights
Appendix 4 reinforces the assertive frame with a list of rights the instructor may claim and is expected to extend to the trainee:
- The right to be treated with respect.
- The right to ask for what I want or need.
- The right to my own personal feelings, and to express them.
- The right to state my values, opinions, and ideas.
- The right to make mistakes, be unaware or unskilled.
- The right to change my mind.
- The right to refuse a request and say "NO", without feeling guilty.
- The right to ask for more information when I don't understand.
- The right to decline responsibility for other people's problems.
- The right to say and do the things that are more important to me.
- The right to decide not to assert myself.
Connections
- 2.2 The Learning Process. The process whose end product is the behaviour categorised here.
- 2.4 Motivation. What drives the trainee toward a particular behaviour.
- 2.7 Human Information Processing and Memory. The central decision maker that knowledge-based behaviour rests on.
- Threat and error management. The discipline within which knowledge-based decision making is exercised.
- Core competencies. The framework that decomposes assessable behaviour into observable indicators across the three SRK categories.
- 7.3 General Debrief Techniques. The debrief in which the instructor classifies observed errors against the SRK taxonomy.