Train-the-Trainer by DataHomeLab

A1.4 Facilitation Techniques

The four facilitation tools and every worked dialogue contrast that illustrates them. Effective and ineffective examples are preserved verbatim because the contrast IS the teaching content; an instructor who only reads the prose without the dialogue cannot calibrate what "effective" sounds like in practice.

Facilitation techniques

Part of the instructor's role is to ensure that the crew members analyse and evaluate LOS situations, and their performance, in depth. One of the greatest difficulties is getting the crew to go beyond a superficial description of LOS events. The objective is to encourage crew members to not just discuss what happened: they should discuss why they did what they did to manage the situation, and why the situation turned out the way it did. Discussing why helps crew members better understand what knowledge and information played a role in their decision-making process, which in turn can help them learn to make better decisions in the future.

How these techniques integrate with the C-A-L model is treated in A1.5 Five-Point Facilitator Rating Scale.

Questions

Questions are useful to guide the crew to important topics and encourage them to analyse and evaluate their LOS performance in depth. Although questions are one of the instructor's most useful tools, the instructor should be wary of dominating the discussion with their own questions. To the extent necessary, questions can be used to help the crew members identify issues, to follow up on topics, and to encourage them to thoroughly discuss their performance through direct discussion with each other. Ideally, questions should be phrased to require more than a simple "yes" or "no" answer; questions should push a crew to analyse its performance at a deeper level.

Nine question patterns follow, each with effective and (where given) ineffective dialogue contrasts.

Set the scene and ask for crew reaction

A good way to start a discussion of a LOS event is to show the video segment, then ask an open-ended question: "What went well (or not so well) there?" or "What lessons can be learned from this?"

If the crew does not respond, try again with a more focused question: "Is there anything you would do differently if you had it to do over?" or "Did you see anything in the video that was not SOP?"

Lead the crew to topics

If the crew members seem unsure of what to discuss next, or if they overlook an important aspect of a situation, you may need to ask a question to focus their attention on some topic or aspect. However, be careful to phrase the question so it is not easy to answer with a simple "yes" or "no" and so it does not leave the crew with nothing to say.

Deepen the discussion

Once the crew has begun to discuss a topic, you may need to encourage them to explore in more depth what happened. Ask questions that require the crew members to explore their thoughts and actions in the LOS. Avoid asking questions that give the answer or leave little for them to say.

Follow up on crew topics

It is important to follow up on topics initiated by the crew members and to encourage the crew to explore their topics fully. Following up on crew topics demonstrates to the crew that their thoughts and ideas are important and reinforces their initiative. To obtain greater depth and detail on topics initiated by the crew members, ask questions that begin with what, how, and why. For instance, in the first example below, the more skilful instructor follows up and gets the CA to comment on the FE's observation while the less effective instructor moves on to another topic. In the second example, a more in-depth answer is elicited by the more effective instructor.

Turn crew questions and comments back to them

If a crew member makes a comment or asks a question, avoid using this as a springboard for presenting your own perspectives. Instead, turn the topic back to the crew for discussion. Continue to redirect their questions and comments to encourage the crew to work out answers for themselves. Your questions are a powerful tool for blending your observations into the discussion without dominating. After the crew members have addressed everything they can, you can add teaching points they have not yet discovered.

Get crew members to actively participate

It is important to ensure that all members of the crew actively participate in the debriefing so they can all experience the higher level of learning that results from taking an active role in the learning process. Also, the crew cannot fully analyse and understand their performance as a team without each member's perspective. The following techniques can be used to promote active participation by all crew members.

Drawing out a quiet crew member

If one crew member does not volunteer comments and responds only minimally to questions, you can use several techniques to encourage his or her participation:

Ask the quiet crew member to discuss how effectively the crew performed in the LOS

It is relatively easy to respond to this type of question because there is no right or wrong answer and all crew members are likely to have an opinion.

Redirect a question to the quiet crew member

If your questions are predominantly answered by the same crew member, repeat the question after the dominant crew member has responded so that the quiet crew member will be required to participate and communicate his or her opinions and ideas.

Ask the quiet crew member to expand on what another crew member said

If a crew member sits silently while another does all of the talking, it may be helpful to ask the silent one to expand on what was said by discussing a new aspect of the topic. This technique will make it easier for the quiet member to find something to say.

Drawing out an entire crew

Sometimes all or most of the crew members are unresponsive and getting them to participate seems like pulling teeth. When this happens, you should first review your own participation to ensure that you are not unwittingly sending covert messages that discourage crew participation. To instigate crew participation, it may be helpful to start with the more junior members so they will not be put in the position of potentially disagreeing with the CA early in the session. The troubleshooting techniques below offer specific ways to stimulate participation when crews do not immediately respond.

Troubleshooting: when the crew does not respond to questions

If crew members do not immediately respond to questions, the following techniques may be helpful in eliciting responses. Start with the highest level of facilitation and progressively work down only through the levels necessary so that facilitation stays at the highest level possible.

High-level: use silence and pauses to elicit crew responses

Pause at least three-to-four seconds after asking a question rather than immediately answering for the crew. Most crew members will feel motivated to say something to end the uncomfortable silence (see the Use of Silence section below).

Intermediate-level: reword questions rather than give answers

When crew members do not answer a question after five-to-ten seconds of silence, it may be necessary to rephrase the question to make the intent of the question clearer or to ask a more specific question. If they still do not answer, again pause to allow them to formulate a thoughtful response. Rephrasing the question may give the crew members the cue they need to spark a response, as demonstrated in the examples which follow. By being persistent and patient, you reinforce that the crew members are responsible for their own learning and that they are not going to get away with passively sitting by and waiting to be told the answers. When you answer for the crew, or re-phrase questions in a way that leaves little for the crew to say, you inhibit in-depth crew participation, and hinder crew learning.

Low-level: answer for the crew, but confirm understanding

If the above facilitation techniques still do not elicit a response from the crew, or if the response given lacks depth, it may be necessary to briefly instruct the crew to ensure that they learn from the situation so they can apply the lesson on the line. If it becomes necessary to instruct the crew on certain issues, be sure to verify that they understand and agree because if they don't the opportunity for learning may be lost. It is important to continue trying to involve the crew as much as possible. Once you have shared your knowledge with the crew, and elicited their agreement, try to return to a higher level of facilitation by asking for the crew's opinion, asking them to expand on the issue, or asking them to give an example of what you discussed from their line experience.

Use of Silence

Silence can be a very useful tool to elicit thoughtful crew responses. Most people are uncomfortable with silence in a group setting and are more likely to make some kind of response the longer the silence lasts. Without realising it, instructors often allow only a second or two for a response to their question before either calling on someone else or giving the answer. However, a second is generally not long enough to formulate a thoughtful response, especially to complex questions.

Benefits of using silence

Studies show that waiting three-to-four seconds after asking a question greatly improves the number and quality of responses. The specific benefits of pausing at least three seconds include:

  • crew members produce longer and more confident responses;
  • crew members are more likely to volunteer unsolicited responses;
  • crew members interact more with each other;
  • crew members ask more questions;
  • less articulate crew members participate more.

What to do during silence

In order to minimise the discomfort often associated with even brief periods of silence, it is important to behave in a way that makes the crew feel at ease.

Look relaxed, not anxious or impatient

For the crew to feel comfortable with silence, it is important that you appear at ease. Appearing tense and anxious will give the crew clear non-verbal cues that silence is not appreciated.

Sit back

Sitting on the edge of your seat may be interpreted by the crew as a sign of impatience. Sitting back in your seat, however, helps demonstrate that you are comfortable allowing periods of silence for the crew to think before they respond.

Smile

Smiling conveys reassurance and acceptance, which can help put the crew at ease.

Strategies for using silence

Silence can be used throughout the session to encourage crew participation, not only after asking a question but also after crew comments. Using silence is a high-level facilitation strategy. If silence alone does not elicit crew discussion, try the next level of facilitation.

High-level: pause after asking questions

When crew members do not immediately respond, be patient; remain silent rather than answer for them.

High-level: pause after crew comments

When there is a lull in crew discussion, be patient and wait for the crew to say more rather than immediately adding your own input.

Intermediate-level: ask the crew to comment or elaborate

(Also see the troubleshooting section above.) If the crew does not resume discussion after a period of silence, encourage further discussion by asking them to elaborate on their previous discussion.

Low-level: reinforce what the crew said

(Also see the troubleshooting section above.) If the crew does not resume discussion or cannot elaborate further after a lengthy silence, use the opportunity to provide the crew with positive feedback on the issue they were discussing. Not only will the feedback reinforce the issue at hand, it will also reinforce crew discussion in general.

Active Listening

Good listening skills are as important to an instructor as good speaking skills. Active listening is one of the most useful tools you can use to encourage continued participation. It shows the crew that you are listening and paying attention to them, and that you understand what they are saying which, in turn, encourages them to keep talking. Active listening ranges from simple non-verbal gestures to expanding on crew comments. In all cases, the objective is to encourage the crew to keep talking and, in the more complex forms, to encourage deeper discussion of the issues. The following are examples of the various levels of active listening, in order, from the simplest to the most complex.

Non-verbal

Nod, smile, make eye contact, sit forward in your chair, or otherwise indicate that you are interested in what is being said.

Short interjections

Interject with "Yes?", "Uh-huh...", "I see...", etc., to indicate that you are following what they are saying and to encourage them to say more.

Echoing

Repeat part of what the speaker said as a question directed back to the crew (e.g., if speaker says "We weren't sure if you were cleared for takeoff?").

Reflecting

Repeat what the speaker said in different words while retaining the same meaning (e.g., if speaker says "We didn't use good communication," you might respond with "You didn't let each other know what you were doing?").

Expanding

Expand on what the speaker said by implying more than the speaker intended (e.g., if speaker says "We didn't use good communication," you might respond with "So if you had communicated better you could have avoided getting overloaded?").

Use of Video

The videotape of the LOS session is a useful tool for enhancing the debriefing. Relevant events need to be marked on the tape during the LOS session so you can draw the crew's attention to important points for discussion.

Benefits of using video

An important contribution of videos may be to remind crews what transpired at critical segments during the LOS because it is often difficult for participants to remember specific details of the typically long and stressful sessions. Videos enable crews to review their actions and then examine and gain insight into their behaviour with the detachment of observers. Videos can also encourage self-assessment by helping crew members identify behaviours that were either helpful or harmful to the outcome. The realistic feedback that videos provide can make it easier for you to involve the entire crew in a discussion of team performance, thus enhancing the overall potential of the training session.

Techniques for using video

Index important events

From your experience with the LOS scenario you will be aware of critical events that will challenge the crew. Index those events on the videotape during the LOS and make notes to remind yourself of important points to discuss. Also, index noteworthy examples of good and poor crew performance.

Do not show a video segment unless you intend to discuss it

The purpose of showing the video is to enhance crew analysis by refreshing their memories and giving them the opportunity to objectively evaluate their performance. If you show a video segment without discussing it, you waste both time and the opportunity for discussion.

Avoid showing a large number of segments or very long segments

In a one-hour session, three to six segments are usually all you will have time to adequately discuss. Try to select these three to six short segments to illustrate some major aspects of crew performance (good or bad) rather than showing an entire phase of flight (e.g., from top of descent to touchdown). For aspects of a crew's performance that cannot be clearly illustrated by the video, it is best to steer the discussion to these topics without introducing them with a video segment.

Be proficient in the use of the video equipment

Be very familiar with the video equipment so you can quickly find the events marked on the tape. Use the automatic index marker to find events; playing the video in fast forward while searching for segments wastes time and distracts the crew.

Introduce each video segment

Set the scene by describing the situation and where in the flight the segment to be discussed occurs. You may also find it useful to remind the crew that they will be expected to analyse what they see.

Pause for comments

Pause the video when you or a crew member make a comment so the comment can be heard and understood. Crew members will feel that you are genuinely interested in what they have to say if you pause to give them your undivided attention.

Pause to discuss important issues

Pause the video to call attention to, and elicit crew discussion of, a specific aspect of crew performance shown on the video. For example, rather than talking during the video and forcing the crew to compete with the noise, stop the video and encourage crew discussion.

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